Essay on Music Therarpy - 488 Words

Music therapy is the prescribed use of music and musical interventions in order to restore, maintain, and improve emotional, physical, physiological, and spiritual health as well as a person’s well being. Music Therapy facilitates the creative process of moving toward wholeness in the physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual self in areas such as: independence, freedom to change, adaptability, balance and integration. The implementation of Music Therapy involves interactions of the therapist, client and music. These interactions initiate and sustain musical and non-musical change that may or may not be observable. As the musical elements of rhythm, melody and harmony are elaborated across time, the therapist and client can develop†¦show more content†¦Its so effective that music therapy is reimbursable under certain conditions of Medicare. One study done by six major universities found that teaching healthy elderly people to play instruments decreased their anxiety, loneliness, and depression. In hospitals, anxious patients often have elevated blood pressure, heartbeat, and respiratory rates, placing them at greater risk for complications. For an anxious patient, music can have a comparable effect as taking five milligrams of Valium. When music plays in the operating room, Dr. Schwartz says, â€Å"Anesthesia requirements drop from 10 to 20 percent.† As a part of the cable TV system, music can be accessed anywhere in the complex, including operating rooms, labor and delivery, the cardiac intensive care unit, and the nursery, all ranging from classical to gospel. Studies showed that premature babies in intensive care who were exposed to music were calmer and used oxygen more efficiently. The babies also gained weight faster and required shorter periods of hospitalization than babies who didnt listen to music. Burn victims, and patients undergoing treatment for cancer, brain disorders, and kidney dialysis reported less discomfort when music was played during painful procedures. Patients who awoke to music playing after surgery required less pain medication and could wait longer for their analgesic

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PG Ldl Case - 5558 Words

Procter Gamble Company (A) In November 1981, Mr. Chris Wright, Associate Advertising Manager of the Packaged Soap Detergent Division (PSD) of the Procter Gamble Co. (PG) was evaluating how the division could increase volume of its light-duty liquid detergents (LDLs). 1 The excellent growth of Dawn dishwashing liquid since its national introduction in 1976 meant that PG now manufactured and sold three leading LDL brands, holding a 42% share (by weight) of the industry’s $850 million in factory sales. Based on input from the three LDL brand managers who reported to him, as well as his own knowledge of the LDL category, Wright believed there were three major opportunities for volume growth: (1) the introduction of a new brand, (2) a†¦show more content†¦This information was key in helping the brand groups to recommend action which would maximize volume and profit growth. Advertising services department. Within the department, there were nine staff groups which serviced the advertising department . These were market research, art and package design, TV commercial production, media, copy services, field advertising, marketing systems and computer services, promotion and marketing services, and advertising personnel. PSD market research included the following: 1. Market analysis, including bimonthly syndicated market data that PG purchased from A.C. Nielsen Co., as well as selected data purchased from Nielsen, Selling Areas Marketing, Inc. (SAMI) and other suppliers for test markets. 2. Consumer research, including studies to: a. monitor how consumers used products and track consumer usage of, attitude towards, and image of PG and competitive brands; b. test the performance of current products and possible product modifications under in-home usage conditions; and c. evaluate the advertising, packaging, promotion and pricing of PG brands; also, to evaluate the potential of new-product ideas, using such techniques as concept research and simulated test markets. Light-Duty Liquid Detergents During the 1940s, most U.S. consumers used powdered laundry detergents to wash their dishes. Research indicated, however, that consumers foundShow MoreRelatedThe Light Duty Liquid Detergents (Ldl) Market1428 Words   |  6 PagesI. Executive Summary Chris Wright, associate advertising manager of Packaged Soaps and Detergents (PSD) division at Procter and Gamble (PG) needs to evaluate how to increase the volume of its light duty liquid (LDLs). 3 alternatives for volume growth are considered for analysis based on the market segment (price/ performance/ mildness): (1) introduction of a new brand, (2) product improvement of an existing brand and/or (3) increased marketing expenditures on existing brands. Ultimately he mustRead MorePG, Light Duty Liquid Detergents2257 Words   |  10 Pagesi)Budget Allocation: The LDL managers of Ivory Liquid, Dawn, and Joy spend about half of their marketing budget in advertising and with a lower share on promotion. This is different from the strategy of Colgate Lever, who spends a higher percentage on promotion. The marketing budget for H-80 is $60 million for the first year, which includes $18 million on advertising, $37 million on promotion, and $5 million of miscellaneous marketing expenses. ii)Scheduling of LDL Promotional Events: TheRead MorePG, Light Duty Liquid Detergents2266 Words   |  10 Pagesi)Budget Allocation: The LDL managers of Ivory Liquid, Dawn, and Joy spend about half of their marketing budget in advertising and with a lower share on promotion. This is different from the strategy of Colgate Lever, who spends a higher percentage on promotion. The marketing budget for H-80 is $60 million for the first year, which includes $18 million on advertising, $37 million on promotion, and $5 million of miscellaneous marketing expenses. ii)Scheduling of LDL Promotional Events: TheRead MoreCase Study About Procter and Gamble Company1228 Words   |  5 PagesProcter and Gamble Company Case Analysis This case study analysis focused on Procter and Gamble Company’s marketing plans and strategic options on its light-duty liquid brands (LDL). Procter amp; Gamble is the world’s largest producer of household and hygiene products. By 1981 Pamp;G operated in 26 countries and sales totaled $11.4 billion with 90 consumer and industrial products manufactured in the United States. The case study provided some very detailed data analysis and reports in terms ofRead MoreAssignment 1 Procter and Gamble Company Case2245 Words   |  9 PagesAssignment 1: Procter Gamble Company (A) Case Analysis (Submitted in fulfillment of the assignments for Marketing Management) Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, Delhi Table of Contents Assignment ..................................................................................4 Executive Summary .....................................................................4 2.Analysis ......................................................................................6 Recommendations ......Read MoreA Brief Note On Patients With Coronary Heart Disease : How Do Statins Work And Why Are They Considered1441 Words   |  6 Pages2009). The CHD is the most common cause of ischemia and the major complications of CHD are: Angina and Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction). The risk of CHD increases with elevated levels of Total Cholesterol and Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL or bad cholesterol) in the blood. HDL cholesterol- High Density Lipoprotein (good cholesterol)(Ngoepe, 2014) is cardio protective and the risk of CHD decreases, when levels of HDL are elevated(Indolfi, 15 October 2002). Diet influences the level ofRead MoreIs Increased Dietary Fiber Intake Associated With Better Control Of Type 2 Diabetes3122 Words   |  13 PagesAdults? A Review of Current Research Amy Faulkner DIE 4564 Evidence Based Research in Dietetics Professor Kathryn Brogan, PhD, RD ABSTRACT Introduction: With an estimated 26 million Americans currently living with Diabetes, 90-95% of the cases being type 2 diabetes, it is crucial lifestyle interventions are administered by health professionals to lessen the growth of this disease. Nutrition is a key component to reversing type 2 diabetes, and one way to reduce the risks associated with typeRead MoreNutrical Case study Essay1674 Words   |  7 PagesNF100 Case #1 Profile: Patient: Female Age: 52 years old Height: 5’6 Weight 200 lbs Activity level: Sedentary Blood pressure: 130/80 LDL cholesterol: 190 mg/dl HDL cholesterol: 30 mg/dl Case history: This patient is concerned about her risk for colon cancer. Her father had colon cancer and she is consulting you to design a diet that would reduce her risk for this disease. 1. What is her BMI? (Show your calculation—4pts) What is the significance of her BMI? (3 pts) Is thereRead MoreLipoprotein A Essay9440 Words   |  38 PagesIntroduction Lipoprotein A was first discovered in humans by Kare Berg in 1963 whilst a study of variation in LDL antigenicity. The Human gene encoding lipoprotein(a) was cloned in the year 1987(1). Lipoprotein A Structure Lipoprotein A has a similar structure to the LDL molecule with the addition of a covalently bound specific apolipoprotein A (2). Apolipoprotein(A) is a homologue of plasminogen and contains several copies of KRINGLE 4 plasminogen, a single copy of KRINGLE 5 plasminogen and anRead MoreIn Our Current Society, So Many People Struggle With Being1801 Words   |  8 Pageslipoproteins (HDL) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) levels. At the end of the study, the people that were on the paleo diet were seen to have a larger decrease in physical attributes such as weight, BMI, and waist circumference as well as higher HDL levels, which is known as the â€Å"good† cholesterol. A smaller study was done alongside the main study on a group of non-obese participants, where, in contrast, no weight loss was observed (Tarantino, G., Citro, V., Finelli, C., 2015). Another study

Sample Essay Victoria s Reflection - 943 Words

Victoria’s Reflection Observation- At Centennial Elementary school Mrs. Madrigal was giving a composition lesson that focused on summarizing. During academics on Tuesday, March 15th, 2016 at 5 o’clock the lesson on summarizing was given to first graders. The lesson was introduced by the teacher in a fun and exciting way. The teacher asked who has played football or if the students have a favorite team. Some students mentioned the teams their parents liked and others didn’t know anything about football. Then, the teacher handed out a worksheet that had the word â€Å"Football† in bold and larger text in the top middle section of the page. The top half of the worksheet had two sections, to its left it had a paragraph that consisted of nine sentences and to the right, a picture of a football player about to throw the football and someone covering him and another person from the opposite team trying to stop him. As the teacher read the short paragraph, the students read along with her. There were seve n students during the lesson and they all seem to enjoy reading about football. After reading the paragraph some students wanted to discuss football teams, but the teacher mentioned that they are going to get a chance to express their preferences about their favorite team later and to focus on only the short story about football. The bottom half section had two questions. One asked to write in complete sentences what was the storyShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Being A Performance Designer3579 Words   |  15 Pagesperfectionist and really obsessed with organisation I definitely follow a specific pattern of working, really helping me to produce a successful final piece. I am always learning and developing my skills and knowledge, and there are many but In this essay I will outline the approach and working process that I believe designers should follow, in order to communicate and work with their collaborators to create a successful final outcome. These guidelines are based on my experience, influenced by otherRead MoreLesson Plan10685 Words   |  43 PagesDavao is a private institution that the call was to establish a school founded in His love that looks upon every child as a holy offering to Him. The Holy Child School of Davao (formerly Holy Child Day Care and Learning Center) was founded by Mrs. Victoria D. Leuterio in 1981. With humble beginnings, it started from a garage of two classrooms as a preparatory school. in 1982, the school moved to its present site along Jacinto Street.With the prodding and encouragement of the pre-school parents at thatRead MoreManagement and Mcd2040 Managing People6266 Words   |  26 PagesManaging People and Organisations Equivalent to MU:MGC1010, MGF1010, MGW1010 Unit Outline Prepared by: Department of Management Faculty of Business and Economics Monash University Produced and Published by: Monash College Pty. Ltd. Clayton, Victoria, Australia, 3800 First Published: January 2009 Revised Printed: February 2013  © Copyright 2013 NOT FOR RESALE. All materials produced for this course of study are protected by copyright. Monash students are permitted to use these materials forRead MoreThemes in Education7729 Words   |  31 Pagesdecisions that can lead to desired outcomes. This booklet discusses several types of action research, its history, and a process that may be used to engage educators in action research. Two stories from the field, written by teachers about their own reflections on the process, are given as illustrations of action research. Action Research What is Action Research? Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniquesRead MoreAdvances in Artificial Intelligence Essay2696 Words   |  11 Pagesthe validity of endowing privilege on those who posses it. 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Advantages of Multicultural Labor Force - 786 Words

Multicultural Advantages There are a number of palpable advantages to having a multicultural labor force that is the product of a multicultural society. One of the foremost of these boons would be the degree of tolerance that would be inherently placed within such a society, particularly when it is reinforced by practical, daily examples of people of varying ethnicities and religious backgrounds working (effectively, in an ideal situation) together. Such examples may very well play a part in the reduction of bigotry and in conventional prejudice that is typically associated with differences in race and culture. This propensity to promote equality among differing people based upon a work experience that mirrors a multicultural society, such as that which may be found in several places of the United States and includes groups of African Americans, Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Native Americans, Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans, may be based on a number of factors that includes rank and position wit hin work environments, and a similar equality among different ethnicities found there. In some instances, multicultural education may be necessary for tolerance (Fuhr 1996, 11). 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Audit Planning is an Iterative and Continual Process

Question: Write an essay on Audit planning. Answer: Audit planning is an iterative and continual process that encompasses devising a comprehensive audit strategy for the engagement and analysing the various risks and planning the risk management procedures (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, 2016). The nature and process of audit planning are closely related to the functionality and complexity of the organisation under consideration. In this report, an audit plan has been drafted for Woolworths Limited, an Oceania-based retail chain and Qantas Airways Limited, an Australian airline. Woolworths Limited manages some of the Australias most trusted retail brands. It offers a range of portfolio including apparel, food and drinks, petrol, home solutions, hotels and financial services (Woolworths Limited, 2016). The Australian retail industry is primarily affected by macroeconomic factors and consumers' willingness to pay. Low-interest rates along with modest GDP growth have positively affected the disposable income and expenditure of the consumers (Ferrier Hodgson and Azurium, 2015). On the other hand, the rise in unemployment and rapid decline of AUD is taking a toll on the retail sector margins. The coalition government has imposed a hefty tax burden to tackle the national deficits and it has also withdrawn government subsidies from various industries. The online retail space in Australia is booming at a faster pace compared to the overall retail industry. In spite of the geographic isolation of the Oceania region and the bullish view towards local brands, foreign r etailers have shown interest in the Australian retail space and this has increased competition. GAP, HM, Costco, Zara, Top shop and many others have stepped in and challenged the local retailers for market share. The technological advances in the consumer purchase cycle have the capability to reshape the industrial and competitive landscape further as omni-channel retailing is becoming more and more relevant in the retail industry. Inherent risk Justification Assertion and ledger account(s) impacted Audit procedure/task Operational risk The KPIs got affected due to the alliance between Woolworths and Caltex, the reducing average fuel sales price and not-so-promising trading figures in food and liquor and general merchandise in Australia. Sales revenue decreased by 0.2%. The cost of Doing Business (CODB) going up by 42 bps due to dip in sales growth resulted from the Woolworths-Caltex alliance (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Analytical procedures and inspection of records and assets(Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, 2016) Market risk The company is facing increasing competition from incumbent rivals and new entrants in the retail industry. Dilution or damage of Woolworth's brands, global economic disruption, and failure to effectively hedge against adverse fluctuations in the exchange rates or interest rates pose a significant risk. The Existence and Valuation assertions are impacted. Fluctuations in profitability indices can be a suitable KPI for this risk. Observation of market trends and competitive retail landscape, recalculation and re-performance of the brands Strategic risk Woolworths' retail chains may be negatively influenced if the customer demands are not properly met by customer value proposition. This could also impact results from future growth prospects and operations. Also, the profit margins may be compromised if Woolworths go for acquisition or divestment activities and face unforeseen liabilities from these activities The Existence and Valuation assertions are impacted. Fluctuations in profitability indices can be a suitable KPI for this risk. Observation of technological trends and competitive retail landscape, recalculation and re-performance of the brands An analytical review of the annual report of Woolworths suggests that the alliance with Caltex has negatively affected the company's profitability indices. Also, the company is planning to return 72% of its net profit to the company's shareholders in the form of $1.8 billion as dividends. This implies that the company is not having additional expansion or consolidation projects in mind and hence it does not require cash in hand. The company has been struggling in Australian supermarkets and this is due to the increased competition and price wars although the company stood firm in keeping its rates fixed when faced with the challenges.antas Airways Limited is the largest airline in Australia regarding fleet size, international flights as well as destinations (Qantas Airways Limited, 2016). The airline has performed strongly in 2014-15 since coming back from the global economic crisis in 2009. Qantas have consolidated their leverage ratio by reducing debts in 2014-15. It has also incre ased liquidity aspects and group-wide return on invested capital (ROIC) to 16% (Qantas Airways Limited, 2015). Inherent risk Justification Assertion and ledger account(s) impacted Audit procedure/task Liquidity risk Liquidity risk is the risk that Qantas may encounter in coping up with obligations related to financial liabilities. The Qantas Group proposes to manage this risk by fixing minimum liquidity level as objective. This ensures long-term obligations achieved in relation to forecasting present cash inflows, maintaining access to multiple additional sources of funding that include standby facilities and commercial paper, and managing maturity profiles. Cash flow statements will undergo fluctuations due to debt retirements or acquiring new shares through stock purchases in open market transactions. Analytical procedures and inspection of records and assets Market risk The company faces risk from the areas of market fuel price, foreign exchange and interest rate. Interest rate risk refers to the risk pertaining to the future cash flows of a financial instrument due to fluctuations in interest rate in the market. This will also fluctuate due to change in foreign currency exchange rates which are quite relevant to Qantas' international operations. Change in Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) costs will also affect the profitability of the company. The Existence and Valuation assertions are impacted. Qantas group has assets and liabilities in various currencies and exchange rate fluctuations will hamper the balance sheet. Observation of market trends and competitive retail landscape, recalculation and re- performance of the brands Credit risk Credit risk is the projected loss from an account transaction when the counterparty defaults during the period of the transaction or on settlement of the account. In this context, the cost to replace existing operations, when counterparty defaults, is known as credit exposure. Transactions through trade-debtor counterparties and other financial asset counterparties Analytical procedures and inspection of records and assets As per the systematic review, the Qantas group follows a financial framework with particular objectives. It aims to maintain an optimal capital structure by minimising the weighted average cost of capital. The company has achieved this by reducing $1 million debt in 2014-15 but keeping the same capital structure with increasing cost of operations and international expansion can pose a significant challenge. References Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, 2016. Audit procedures. [Online] Available at: https://www.accaglobal.com/gb/en/student/exam-support-resources/fundamentals-exams-study-resources/f8/technical-articles/audit-procedures.html [Accessed 23 May 2016]. Ferrier Hodgson and Azurium, 2015. Australian Retail 2015: Welcome to the Hunger Games!, s.l.: s.n. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, 2016. Auditing Standard No. 9. [Online] Available at: https://pcaobus.org/Standards/Auditing/Pages/Auditing_Standard_9.aspx [Accessed 22 May 2016]. Qantas Airways Limited, 2015. Qantas Annual Report 2015, s.l.: Qantas Airways Limited. Qantas Airways Limited, 2016. Traffic Capacity Statistics. [Online] Available at: https://investor.qantas.com/investors/?page=traffic-and-capacity-statistics [Accessed 23 May 2016]. Woolworths Limited, 2015. Annual Report 2015, s.l.: Woolworths Limited. Woolworths Limited, 2016. Brands of Woolworths. [Online] Available at: https://www.woolworthslimited.com.au/page/Who_We_Are/Our_Brands/ [Accessed 22 May 2016].

The Determinants of Service Quality free essay sample

The determinants of service quality: satisfiers and dissatisfiers Robert Johnston University of Warwick, Coventry, UK Introduction There appear to be five major debates taking place in the service quality area. One debate concerns the similarities and differences between the constructs of service quality and satisfaction (see e. g. Anderson and Sullivan, 1993; Bolton and Drew, 1991; Cronin and Taylor, 1992, 1994; Oliver, 1993; Parasuraman et al. We will write a custom essay sample on The Determinants of Service Quality or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page , 1988; Taylor, 1993; Zeithaml et al. , 1993). There appears to be a consensus emerging that satisfaction refers to the outcome of individual service transactions and the overall service encounter, whereas service quality is the customer’s overall impression of the relative inferiority/superiority of the organization and its services (Bitner and Hubbert, 1994). A second debate is about the efficacy of the expectation-perception gap view of service quality, which is similar to the disconfirmation theory found in the consumer behaviour literature (see, for example, Berry et al. 1985; Gronroos, 1984, 1990; Haywood-Farmer and Nollet, 1991; Parasuraman et al. , 1994). Some researchers now believe that there is strong empirical evidence that service quality should be measured using performance-based measures (see for example Babakus and Boller, 1992; Cronin and Taylor, 1994). A third debate is concerned with the development of models that help our understanding of how the perception gap arises and how managers can minimize or ma nage its effect (see, for example, Brogowicz et al. , 1990; Gronroos, 1990; Gummesson and Gronroos, 1987; Parasuraman et al. , 1985). A fourth debate concerns the definition and use of the zone of tolerance. Berry and Parasuraman (1991) suggested that â€Å"the zone of tolerance is a range of service performance that a customer considers satisfactory†. The importance of the zone of tolerance is that customers may accept variation within a range of performance and any increase in performance within this area will only have a marginal effect on perceptions (Strandvik, 1994). Only when performance moves outside of this range will it have any real effect on perceived service quality (see also Johnston, 1995; Liljander and Strandvik, 1993). A fifth debate, and the area of interest for this article, concerns the identification of the determinants of service quality. This should be a central concern for service management academics and practitioners, as the identification of the determinants of service quality is necessary in order to be able to specify, measure, control and improve customer perceived service quality. The next section provides an overview of the literature on service quality determinants. Determinants of service quality 53 Received September 1994 Revised June 1995 International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. No. 5, 1995, pp. 53-71.  © MCB University Press, 0956-4233 IJSIM 6,5 54 The objective of this article is to explore the link between the determinants of service quality and outcomes either side of the zone of tolerance; that is are there some determinants which tend to be primarily a source of dissatisfaction and others that tend to be primarily a source of satisfaction. If these can b e identified, service managers should be able to improve the delivery of customer perceived quality during the service process and have greater control over the overall outcome. The determinants of service quality Most writers agree that customers’ expectations are rarely concerned with a single aspect of the service package but rather with many aspects (see, for example, Berry et al. , 1985; Johnston and Lyth, 1991; Sasser et al. , 1978). Parasuraman et al. (1985) provided a list of ten determinants of service quality as a result of their focus group studies with service providers and customers: access, communication, competence, courtesy, credibility, reliability, responsiveness, security, understanding and tangibles. In a later article that year (Berry et al. 1985) they added that: although the relative importance of the categories would vary from one service industry to the next, we believe the determinants of service quality in most (if not all) consumer service industries are included in this list. In the next phase of their research, Berry et al. (1985) found a high degree of correlation between, on the one hand, communication, competence, cour tesy, credibility and security, and, on the other, between access and understanding; and so they created the two broad dimensions of assurance and empathy, that is, five consolidated dimensions. They then used the five dimensions – tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy – as the basis for their service quality measurement instrument, SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al. , 1988; Zeithaml et al. , 1990). They reported further that, regardless of the service being studied, reliability was the most important dimension, followed by responsiveness, assurance and empathy. The intangibles were of least concern to service customers. These dimensions have been the subject of some criticism, though they have formed the basis for a considerable amount of research and application in the field of service management. Finn and Lamb (1991), for example, in a study of retailing, concluded that their results did not support Berry et al. ’s (1985) belief that the instrument could be used to assess quality in a wide range of service firms. They found that the model’s five dimensions were insufficient to cover quality in a retailing setting. They questioned particularly whether the five dimensions are generic and suggested that much development and refinement was needed. Cronin and Taylor (1992), in their research into service quality in banks, pest control, dry cleaning and fast food, also found little support for the five dimensions. They stated: our results suggest that the 5-component structure proposed by Parasuraman et al. (1988) for their SERVQUAL scale is not confirmed in any of the research samples. Research by Johnston et al. (1990) involved some testing of the comprehensive- Determinants of ness of Parasuraman et al. s (1988) service quality determinants in the light of service quality empirical data gathered in ten UK service organizations. Their analysis, although generally supportive of the ten determinants, suggested a refined list of 12: access, appearance/aesthetics, availability, cleanliness/tidiness, comfort, communication, competence, courtesy, friendliness, reliability, responsiveness 55 and security. The limitation of their work lay in the fact that the empirical investigation drew only on management perceptions of service. Unlike Parasuraman et al. (1988), Johnston et al. 1990) did not use customer data in order to identify the determinants of service quality. Johnston and Silvestro (1990) went on to add the customer’s perspective to the 12 service quality characteristics. This led to the identification of an additional five service quality determinants: attentiveness/helpfulness, care, commitment, functionality, integrity; it also led to a refining of some of the other definitions. A number of other authors have also postulated their own determinants of service quality, though in some cases they appear to have been based on Berry et al. s (1985) well publicized work. Walker (1990) suggested that the key determinants are product reliability, a quality environment and delivery systems that work together with good personal service – staff attitude, knowledge and skills. Gronroos (1990) postulated six criteria of perceived good service quality: professionalism and skills; attitudes and behaviour; accessibility and flexibility; reliability and trustworthiness; recovery; reputation and credibility. Albrecht and Zemke (1985) suggested care and concern, spontaneity, problem solving and recovery. Armistead (1990) split the dimensions into â€Å"firm† and â€Å"soft†. The firm dimensions are time (including availability, waiting time and responsiveness), fault freeness (including physical items, information and advice) and flexibility (ability to recover from mistakes, to customize the service or add additional services). The soft dimensions are style (attitude of staff, accessibility of staff and ambience), steering (the degree to which customers feel in control of their own destiny) and safety (trust, security and confidentiality). The key issue for this article is that the work on the determinants of service quality does not necessarily distinguish between the effect of the determinants in terms of creation of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. It is implicitly assumed that they are the two sides of the same coin; for example, reliability was Berry et al. ’s (1985) most important factor, which implies that unreliability will lead to dissatisfaction and that reliability will lead to satisfaction. Could it not be that a train which arrives on time is satisficing not satisfying? Their instrument measured only the importance, but not the relative impact of any individual, or collection of, determinants. Satisfiers versus dissatisfiers There has been some recent research which has sought to identify some of the determinants of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The earliest work is to be found in the consumer behaviour literature. IJSIM 6,5 Swan and Combs (1976) postulated that: onsumers judge products on a limited set of attributes, some of which are relatively important in determining satisfaction, while others are not critical to consumer satisfaction but are related to dissatisfaction when performance on them is unsatisfactory. 56 Their hypothesis was that there are two types of determinants – instrumental (the performance of the physical product) and expressive (the psychological performance of the product) – and that both have to be achieved to satisfy the consu mer. They postulated that satisfaction will tend to be associated with expressive outcomes above or equal to expectations and dissatisfaction will tend to be related to performance below expectations for instrumental outcomes. Also, to be satisfactory the product must meet expectations on both instrumental and expressive outcomes. They suggested that dissatisfaction may occur from either type of performance. To test their ideas they applied a modified version of the critical incident technique (CIT) and asked 60 graduate students to â€Å"think about an item of clothing that has been especially satisfactory and an item that has been especially dissatisfactory†. The students were interviewed about their reasons. Swan and Combs stated that this was very much an exploratory study and that its findings were not necessarily generalizable. They found some problems in the classification of their data: for example, comfort could be instrumental or expressive, and its categorization as one or the other significantly affected the results. They also found that both instrumental and expressive factors led to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. It should also be noted that their work was concerned with products and not services. Maddox (1981) replicated Swan and Combs’s (1976) work and collected data on clothing, personal care products, durables and small appliances. He applied a selfadministered questionnaire to about 200 members of a consumer behaviour class at the University of Missouri-St Louis in 1979. The response rate was over 80 per cent. He used the same classification and hypotheses as Swan and Combs. The outcome of his study provides support for Swan and Combs’ findings that it is difficult to make predictions on the link between the two outcomes and customer satisfaction. He did find, however, that â€Å"low values on an expressive attribute will reduce satisfaction, but will not lead to dissatisfaction†. Another preliminary investigation was carried out by Hausknecht (1988). He again applied CIT to a group of 94 students investigating their experience of a number of products. He concluded that satisfaction is best characterized by the emotions interest, joy and surprise, and dissatisfaction by anger, disgust and surprise. His study revealed differences in the emotions of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, rather than the causes of these states. Cadotte and Turgeon (1988) undertook an analysis of the content of complaints and compliments reported by a cross-section of restaurant owners in the USA. There were 432 responses from restaurants and 260 from hotels, most of which, surprisingly, were compliments and not complaints (only 9 per cent of the guests’ comments were unfavourable). They found that some variables were dissatisfiers when the performance or absence of the desired feature led to dissatisfaction, which then resulted in complaining behaviour. Furthermore, higher levels of them did not appear to cause compliments; for Determinants of example, parking at the restaurant. They concluded that â€Å"Dissatisfiers service quality represent the necessary but not sufficient conditions of product performance†. There were also some satisfiers where unusual performance elicited strong feelings of satisfaction leading to complimenting behaviour, but typical performance or the absence of performance did not necessarily cause negative feelings. They stated: â€Å"from a management point of view satisfiers represent an 57 opportunity to move ahead of the pack†. They further suggested that there were â€Å"criticals† which were the variables that could elicit both positive and negative feelings – quality of service was one of the factors that ranked high as both a satisfier and dissatisfier. They also identified â€Å"neutrals† as those areas which received neither compliment nor complaint. This work seems to suggest that the causes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction may be different. However, by analysing compliments and complaints it is possible that only the very extremes of satisfactory and dissatisfactory experiences were considered. Furthermore, and importantly, service quality was a single variable, yet other variables included service quality characteristics: for example, cleanliness, speed of service, employee knowledge. It was unclear what remained in the quality of service category. There have been a number of studies undertaken more recently by service management researchers. A study by Bitner et al. (1990), again using CIT, attempted to identify the events and employee traits that led to satisfactory and dissatisfactory outcomes. They studied 700 incidents from customers of airlines, hotels and restaurants. They identified employees’ willingness to respond to a problem, employees’ responsiveness to customer needs and requests and unsolicited employee actions as being the key employee actions that elicit both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Their study focused on the actions of employees and so had only limited coverage of customer perceived service quality. A CIT study by Johnston and Silvestro (1990), using a convenience sample of 100 with anecdotes covering many different service industries, revealed some support for the satisfying, dissatisfying and â€Å"criticals† proposition put forward by Cadotte and Turgeon (1988). They called their categories hygiene, enhancing and dual factors, (recognizing the similarities with Herzberg et al. ’s (1959) categorization of the factors affecting job satisfaction (see also Johnston and Lyth, 1988). Mersha and Adlakha (1992) asked 25 MBA students to identify the factors that satisfied and dissatisfied them. The 12 resulting attributes were found to be similar to those proposed by Parasuraman et al. (1985). This led to the development of a questionnaire which was pre-tested on an undergraduate class and tested on a graduate class. Five services were covered: physician; retail banking; car maintenance; colleges; and fast-food restaurants. The attributes of good quality were knowledge of the service, thoroughness, accuracy, consistency, reliability, reasonable cost, willingness to correct errors, timely and prompt service. The attributes of poor quality included lack of knowledge about the service, employees’ indifference, reluctance to correct errors, service inconsistency, sloppiness and high cost. There seems to be some evidence that, IJSIM 6,5 58 t a detailed level, there may be some difference between the causes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Another study was undertaken by Smith et al. (1992) using CIT and cluster analysis. They suggested that the determinants of satisfaction and dissatisfaction indeed may be different. They did not use the existing service quality characteristics but found that satisfaction was usually generated by service going beyond expectations and dissatisfaction resulte d from failure, slowness, disinterest and rudeness of staff. Their data came from a single industry – retail services – and their sample comprised graduate and undergraduate students from an American university. Their analysis was based on 35 satisfying incidents and 36 dissatisfying incidents. Edvardsson (1992) used CIT to investigate the causes of negative critical incidents in an airline. He took information from both passengers and staff to identify the cause and result of the incidents. His findings were interesting and he reported a difference in the perception of incidents between customers and staff.